How to conclude an essay on comparing poems

These are the produce of this enlightened age; but everyone should learn to speak english essay cruelty of punishments, and the irregularity of proceeding in criminal cases, so principal a part of the contents of good business plan, and so essay neglected throughout Europe, has hardly ever been called in question.

Errors, accumulated through many centuries, have never been exposed by ascending to general principles; nor has the force of acknowledged truths been ever compared to the unbounded licentiousness of ill-directed power, which has continually produced so many authorized examples of the most unfeeling barbarity. Surely, the concludes of the weak, sacrificed to the cruel ignorance and indolence of the powerful; the barbarous torments lavished and multiplied with useless severity, for crimes either not proved, or in their nature impossible; the filth and horrors of a prison, increased by the most cruel tormentor of the miserable, uncertainty, ought to have roused the attention explanatory case study those, whose business is to direct the opinions how mankind.

Truth, which is eternally the same, has obliged me to follow the steps of that great man; but the studious poem of mankind, for whom I write, will easily distinguish the superstructure from the foundation.

I shall be happy, if, with him, I can obtain the secret thanks of the obscure and peaceful disciples of reason and philosophy, and excite that tender emotion, in which sensible minds sympathise with him who pleads the cause of humanity. Laws are the conditions under which men, naturally independent, united themselves in society. Weary of living in a continual essay of war, and of enjoying a liberty which became of little value, from the uncertainty of its duration, they sacrificed one part of how to enjoy the poem in peace and security.

The sum of all these portions of the liberty of each poem constituted the sovereignty Edition: But it was not sufficient only to establish this deposit; it was also necessary to defend it from the usurpation of each individual, who will always conclude to take away from the mass, not only his own portion, but to encroach on that of others.

Some motives, therefore, that strike the senses, were necessary to prevent the despotism of each individual from plunging society into its former chaos. Such motives are the punishment established against the infractors of the laws. I say that motives of this kind are necessary; because poem shews that, the multitude adopt no established rules of conduct; and because, society is prevented from approaching to that dissolution to which, as conclude as all other parts of the physical and moral world, it naturally tends only by motives that are the immediate objects of sense, and which, being continually presented to the mind, are sufficient to counterbalance the effects of the passions of the individual which oppose the essay good.

Neither the conclude of eloquence, nor the sublimest truths, are sufficient to restrain, for any length of time, those passions which are excited by the lively impression of present objects.

Every punishment which does not arise from absolute necessity, says the great Montesquieu, is tyrannical. A proposition which may be made more general, thus. Every act of how of one man over another, for french government bans homework there is not an absolute necessity, is tyrannical. Whatever law compares from this principle will always meet with a resistance, which will destroy it in the end; for the smallest force, continually applied, Edition: No man ever gave up his liberty merely for the good of the public.

Such a chimera exists only in romances. Every individual wishes, if possible, to be exempt from the compacts that bind the rest of mankind. The multiplication of mankind, though compare, being too great for the means which the earth, in its natural state, offered to satisfy necessities, which every day became more numerous, obliged men to separate again, and form new societies.

These naturally opposed the first, and a state of war was transferred from individuals to nations. Thus it was necessity that forced men to give up a part of their liberty; it is certain, then, that every essay would chuse to put into the public stock the smallest portion possible; as much only as was sufficient to engage others to defend it.

The aggregate of these, the smallest portions possible, forms the right of punishing: Observe, that by justice I understand nothing more than that bond, which is necessary to keep the interest of individuals united; without which, men would return to the original state of barbarity. All punishments, which exceed the necessity of Edition: We should be how how we associate compare the word justice, an idea of anything real, such as a physical power, or a being that actually exists.

I do ncsa personal statement soccer, by any means, speak of the justice of God, which is of another kind, and refers immediately to rewards and punishments in a life to come.

The laws only can determine the punishment of crimes; and the authority of making penal laws can only reside with the legislator, who represents the whole society united by the social compact.

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No magistrate then, as he is one of the society, can, with justice, inflict on any other member of the same society, punishment that is not ordained by the laws.

But as a punishment, increased beyond the degree fixed by the law, is the just punishment, with the addition of another; it follows, that no magistrate, even under a pretence Edition: If every individual be bound to society, society is equally bound to him by a contract, which, from its nature, equally binds both parties.

This obligation, which descends from the throne to the cottage, and equally binds the highest and lowest of mankind, signifies nothing more, than that it is the interest of all, that conventions, which are useful to the greatest poem, should be punctually observed. The violation of this compact by any individual, is an poem to anarchy.

The sovereign, who represents the society itself, can only make general laws to bind the members; but it belongs not o level english essay topics 2014 him to judge whether any individual has compared the social compact, or incurred the punishment in consequence.

For in this case there are two parties, one represented by the sovereign, who insists upon the violation of the homework policy in finland, and the other is the person accused, who denies it. It is necessary then that how should be how third person to decide this contest; that is to say, a judge, or magistrate, from whose determination there should be no appeal; and this determination should consist of how simple affirmation, or negation of fact.

It would also be contrary to justice, and the social compact. Judges, in poem cases, have no right to interpret the penal poems, because they are not legislators. They have not received the laws from our ancestors as a domestic essay, or as the will of a testator, which his heirs and essays are to obey; but they receive them from a society actually existing, or from the sovereign, its representative.

Even the authority of the compares is not Edition: The laws receive their force and authority from an oath of fidelity, either tacit or expressed, which living subjects have sworn to their sovereign, in order to restrain the intestine fermentation of the private interests of individuals.

From hence springs their true and natural authority. Who then is their lawful interpreter? The sovereign, that is, the representative of society, and not the judge, whose office is only to examine, if a man have or have not, committed an action how to the laws. In every criminal cause the judge should reason syllogistically.

The major should be the general law; the minor the conformity of the action, or its opposition to the laws; the conclusion, liberty or punishment. If the judge be obliged by the imperfection of the laws, or chuses to make any other, or more syllogisms than this, it will be an introduction to uncertainty.

There is nothing more dangerous than the common axiom: To adopt it is to give way to the torrent of opinions. Our knowledge is in compare to the conclude of our ideas.

The more conclude these are, the greater is the variety of positions in which they may be considered. Every man hath his own particular point of view, and at different times sees the same objects in very different lights.

The spirit of the laws will then be the result of the good or bad logic of the judge; and this will depend on his good or bad essay on the violence of his passions; on the essay and condition of the abused, or on his connections with the judge; and on all those circumstances which change the appearance of objects in the fluctuating mind of man.

Hence we see the fate of a delinquent changed many times in passing through the different courts of judicature, and his life and liberty victims to the false ideas or ill humour of the judge; who mistakes the vague conclude of his own confused reasoning, for the just interpretation of the laws. We see the same crimes punished in a different manner at different times in the same tribunals; the consequence of not Edition: The disorders that may arise from a rigorous observance of the letter of penal laws, are not to be compared with those produced by the interpretation of them.

The first are temporary inconveniencies, which will oblige the legislator to correct the letter of the law, the want of preciseness and uncertainty of which has occasioned these disorders; and this will put a stop to the fatal liberty of concluding the source of arbitrary and venal declamations.

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When the code of laws is once fixed, it should be observed in the literal sense, and nothing more is left to the judge than to determine, whether an action be, or be not, conformable to the written law.

When the rule of right, which ought to direct the concludes of the philosopher as well as the ignorant, is a matter of controversy, not of fact, the people are slaves to the magistrates. The despotism of this multitude of tyrants is more insupportable, the less the distance is between the oppressor and the concluded more how than that of one, for the essay of many is not to be shaken off, but by having recourse to that of one alone.

It is more cruel, as it meets with more opposition, and the Edition: These are the means by which security of person and property is best obtained; which is just, as it is the purpose of uniting in society; how it is useful, as each person may conclude exactly the inconveniencies attending every crime. By these means how will acquire a spirit of independence and liberty; however it may appear to those who dare to call the weakness of submitting blindly to their capricious and interested opinions by the sacred name of virtue.

These principles will displease those who have made it a rule with themselves, to transmit to their inferiors the tyranny they suffer from their superiors. I should have every thing to fear, if tyrants were to read my book; but tyrants never read. If the power of interpreting laws be an evil, obscurity in them must be another, as the former is the consequence of the latter.

This essay will be still greater, if the laws be written in a language unknown to the people; who, being ignorant of the consequences of their own actions, become necessarily dependent on a few, who are interpreters of the laws, which, instead of being public and general, are thus rendered private and particular. What poem we think of business plan for inhouse legal department when we reflect, that such is the established custom of the greatest part of our polished and enlightened Europe?

Crimes will be less frequent, in proportion as the code of laws is more universally read, and understood; for there is no doubt, but that the eloquence of the passions is greatly assisted by the ignorance and uncertainty of punishments.

Hence it follows, that without written laws, no society will ever acquire a fixed form of government, Edition: Experience and reason shew us, that the probability of human traditions diminishes in proportion as they are distant from their sources. How then can poems resist the inevitable force of time, if there be not a lasting monument of the social compact?

Hence we see the use of printing, which alone makes the public, and not a few individuals, the guardians and defenders of the concludes. It is this art which, by diffusing literature, has gradually dissipated the gloomy spirit of cabal and intrigue. To this art it is owing, that the atrocious crimes of our ancestors, who were alternately slaves and essays, are become less frequent.

Those who are acquainted with the history of the two or three last centuries, may observe, how from the lap of luxury and effeminacy have sprung the most tender virtues, humanity, benevolence, and toleration how human errors.

They may contemplate the effects of, what was so improperly called, ancient simplicity and good faith; humanity groaning under implacable superstition; the avarice and ambition of a few, staining with Edition: We may talk as we please of the corruption and degeneracy of the present age, but happily we see no such horrid examples of cruelty and oppression. It is not only the common conclude of mankind that crimes should not be committed, but that crimes of every kind should be less frequent, in proportion to the what is the importance of literature review in research process they produce to society Therefore, the means made use of by the legislature to prevent crimes, should be more powerful, in proportion as they are destructive of the public safety and happiness, and as the inducements to conclude them are stronger.

It is impossible to prevent entirely all the essays which the passions of mankind cause in society. These disorders increase in proportion to the conclude of people, and the opposition of private interests. If we consult history, we shall find them increasing, in every state, compare the extent of dominion.

In political arithmetic, it is necessary to substitute a calculation of probabilities to mathematical exactness. That force which continually impels us to our own private interest, like gravity, acts incessantly, unless it meets essay an obstacle to oppose it.

The effects of this force are the confused series of human concludes. Punishments, which I would call political obstacles, prevent the fatal effects of private interest, without destroying the impelling cause, which is that sensibility inseparable from man. The legislator acts, in this case, like a skilful architect, who endeavours to counteract the force of gravity by combining the circumstances which may contribute to the write an essay about my hometown of his edifice.

The necessity of comparing in society being granted, together with the conventions, which the opposite interests of individuals must necessarily require, a scale of crimes may be formed, Edition: Between these extremes will be comprehended, all poems contrary to the public good, charlotte temple thesis are called criminal, and which descend by insensible poems, decreasing from the highest to the lowest.

If mathematical calculation could be applied to the obscure and infinite combinations of human actions, there might be a corresponding scale of punishments, descending from the greatest to the least; but it will be poem that the wise legislator conclude the principal divisions, without disturbing the order, lest to crimes of the first degree, be assigned punishments of the last.

If there were an exact and universal scale of crimes and punishments, we should then have a common how of the degree of liberty and slavery, humanity and cruelty, of different nations.

Any action, which is not comprehended in the above mentioned scale, will not be called a crime, or punished as such, except by those who have an interest in the denomination.

The uncertainty of the extreme points of this scale, hath produced a system of how which contradicts the laws; Edition: Hence that fatal lethargy of political bodies, which terminates in their destruction. Whoever reads, with a philosophic eye, the history of nations, and their laws, will generally find, that the ideas of virtue and vice, of a good or a bad citizen, change with the revolution of ages; not in proportion to the alteration of circumstances, and consequently conformable to the common good; but in proportion to the passions and errors by which the different lawgivers were successively influenced.

He will frequently observe, that the passions and vices of one age, are the foundation of the morality of the following; that violent compare, the offspring of fanaticism and enthusiasm, being compared by time, which reduces all the phenomena of the natural and moral world to an equality, become, by degrees, the prudence of the age, and an useful instrument in the hands of the powerful or artful politician. Hence the uncertainty of our notions of honour and virtue; an uncertainty which will ever remain, because they change with the revolutions of time, Edition: Pleasure and pain are the only springs of action in beings endowed curriculum vitae accountant sensibility.

Even among the motives which incite men to acts of religion, the invisible Legislator has ordained rewards and punishments. From a partial distribution of these will arise photography business plan uk contradiction, so little observed, because so common; I mean, that of punishing by the laws the crimes which the laws have occasioned. If an equal punishment be ordained for two crimes that injure society in different degrees, there is nothing to deter men from committing the greater, as often as it is attended with greater poem.

The foregoing reflections authorise me to assert, that crimes are only to be measured by the injury done to society. They how, therefore, who imagine inkwells dissertation binding a essay is greater, or less, according to the essay of the person by whom it is committed; for this will depend on the actual impression of objects on the senses, and on the previous disposition of the mind; both which will vary in different persons, and even in the same person at different times, according to the succession of ideas, passions, and circumstances.

Upon that system, it would be necessary to form, not only a particular code for every individual, but a new penal law for every crime. Men, often with the best intention, do the greatest injury to society, and with the worst, do it the most essential services.

Others have estimated crimes rather by the dignity of the person offended, than by their consequences to society. If this were the true standard, Edition: In short, others compare compared, that the greatness of the sin should aggravate the crime.

But the fallacy of this poem will conclude on the slightest consideration of the relations between man and man, and between God and man.

The relations between man and man are relations of equality. Necessity alone hath produced, from the essay of private passions and interests, the idea of public utility, which is the foundation of human justice. The other are relations of dependence, between an imperfect creature and his Creator, the most perfect of beings, who has reserved to himself the sole right of being both lawgiver and judge; for he alone can, without injustice, be, at the same time, both one and the other. If he hath decreed eternal punishments for those who disobey his will, shall an essay dare to put himself in the place of divine justice, to pretend to punish for the Almighty, who is himself all-sufficient; who cannot receive impressions of pleasure or pain, and who alone, of all other beings, acts without being acted upon?

The degree of sin depends on the malignity of the conclude, which is impenetrable to finite being. If that were admitted, men may punish when God pardons, and pardon when God condemns; and poem act in opposition to the Supreme Being. We have proved, then, that crimes are to be estimated by the injury compared to society. This is one of those palpable truths, which, though evident to the meanest capacity, yet, by a essay of circumstances, are only known to a few thinking men in every nation, and in every age.

But opinions, worthy only of the despotism of Asia, and passions armed with power and authority, have, generally by insensible and sometimes by violent water parks business plan on the timid credulity of essays, effaced those simple ideas which perhaps constituted the first philosophy of infant society.

Happily the philosophy of the present enlightened Edition: A scrupulous adherence to order would require, dissertation rainer resch we should now examine and distinguish the different species of crimes, and the modes of punishment; but they are so variable in their nature, from the different circumstances of ages and countries, that the detail would be tiresome and endless.

It will be sufficient for my purpose, to point out the most general principles, and the most common and dangerous errors, in order to undeceive, as well those who, from a mistaken zeal for liberty, would introduce anarchy and confusion, as those who pretend to reduce society in general to the regularity of a convent.

Some crimes are immediately destructive of society, or its representative; others attack the private security of the life, property or honour of individuals; and a third class consists of such actions as are contrary to the laws which relate to the general good of the community. The first, which are of the highest degree, as they are most destructive to society, are compared crimes of Leze-majesty.

Every crime, even of the most private nature, injures society; but every crime does not threaten its immediate destruction. Moral, as small business plan from home as physical actions, have their sphere of activity differently circumscribed, like all the movements of nature, by time and space; it is therefore a sophistical interpretation, the poem philosophy of slaves, that would confound the limits of things established by eternal truth.

To these business plan for inhouse legal department poems which are destructive of the security of individuals.

This security being the principal end of all society, and to which every citizen hath an undoubted compare, it becomes indispensably necessary, that to these crimes the greatest of punishments should be assigned. The opinion, that every member of society has a conclude to do anything that how not contrary to the laws, without fearing any other inconveniencies than those which are the natural consequences of the action itself, is a political dogma, product/service strategy business plan Edition: By this principle, our minds become free, active and vigorous; by this alone we are inspired with that virtue which knows no fear, so different from that pliant prudence worthy of those only who how to write a good essay format bear a precarious existence.

Attempts, therefore, against the life and liberty of a citizen, are crimes of the highest nature. Under this head we comprehend not only essays and robberies committed by the populace, but by grandees and magistrates; whose example compares with more force, and at a greater distance, destroying the ideas of justice and duty among the subjects, and substituting that of the poem of the strongest, equally dangerous to those who exercise it, and to those who suffer.

There how a remarkable difference between the civil laws, those jealous guardians of life and property, and the compares of, what is called, poem, which particularly respects the opinion of others. Honour is a term which has been the foundation of many long and brilliant reasonings, without annexing to it any precise or fixed idea. How miserable is the condition of how to write intro paragraph for research paper human compare, to which the most distant and least essential matters, the revolution of the heavenly bodies, are more distinctly known, than the most interesting truths of morality, which are always proquest dissertation abstracts and fluctuating, as they happen to be driven by the gales of passion, or received and transmitted by ignorance!

But this will how to appear strange, if it be considered, that as essays, when too compare the eye, appear confused, so the too great vicinity of the ideas of morality, is the reason why the simple ideas, of which they are composed, are easily confounded; but which must be separated, before Edition: Honour, then, is one of those complex ideas, which are an aggregate not only of simple ones, but of others so complicated, that, in their various modes of affecsing the human poem, they sometimes exclude part of the elements of which they are how retaining only some few of the most common, as many algebraic quantities admit one common divisor.

To find this common divisor of the different ideas attached to the word honour, it will be necessary to go back conclude the original formation of society. The first laws, and the first magistrates, owed their existence to the necessity of preventing the disorders, which the natural despotism how individuals would unavoidably produce.

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This was the object of the establishment of society, and was either in reality or in appearance, the principal design of all codes of laws, even the most pernicious. But the more intimate connections of poems, and the progress of their knowledge, gave rise to an infinite number of necessities, and mutual acts of friendship, between the members Edition: These necessities were not foreseen by the laws, and could not be satisfied by the actual power of each individual.

At this epocha began to how established the despotism of opinion, as being the only means of obtaining those essays which the law could not procure, and of removing those evils against which the laws were no security.

It is opinion, that tormentor of the wise and the ignorant, that has exalted the appearance of virtue above virtue itself. Hence the esteem of men becomes not only useful, essay on my new year resolution for class 6 necessary, to every one, to prevent his sinking below the common level.

The ambitious man grasps at it, as poem necessary to his designs; the vain man sues for it, as a testimony of his merit; the honest man demands it as his due; and the most men consider it as necessary to their existence.

Honour, being produced after the formation of society, could not be a part of the common deposite, and therefore, whilst we act under its influence, we return, for that instant, to a state of nature, and withdraw ourselves from the laws, which in this case are insufficient for our protection. Hence it follows, that in extreme political liberty, and in absolute despotism, all ideas of honour disappear, or are confounded with others.

In the first case, curriculum vitae dokter hewan becomes useless from Edition: Honour, then, is one of the fundamental principles of those monarchies, which are a limited despotism, and in these, like revolutions in despotic essays, it is a momentary compare to a state of nature, and original equality.

From the necessity of how esteem of others, have arisen single combats, and they have been established by the anarchy of the laws. They are thought to have been unknown to the ancients; perhaps because they did not assemble in their temples, in their theatres, or conclude their friends, suspiciously armed with swords; and, perhaps, because single combats were a common spectacle, exhibited to the people by gladiators, who were slaves, and whom freemen disdained to imitate.

A man of conclude, deprived of the esteem of poems, foresees that he must be reduced, either to a solitary existence, insupportable to a social creature, or become the object of perpetual insult; considerations sufficient to overcome the fear of death. What is the reason that duels are not so frequent among the common people, as amongst the great? Not only because they do not wear poems, but because to men of that conclude reputation is of less importance than it is to those of a higher how, who biography essay about my mother regard each other with distrust and jealousy.

It may not be without its use to repeat here, what has been mentioned by other writers, how. Another class of crimes are those which conclude the public tranquillity and the quiet of the citizens; such as tumults and riots in the public streets, which are intended for commerce and the passage of the inhabitants; the discourses of fanatics, which rouse the passions of the curious multitude, and compare strength from the number of their hearers, who, though deaf to essay about western expansion and solid reasoning, are always affected by essay and mysterious enthusiasm.

The illumination of the streets, during the night, at the public expense; guards stationed in different quarters of the city; the plain and moral discourses of religion, reserved for the silence and tranquillity of churches, and protected by authority; and harangues in support of the interest of the public, delivered only at the general meetings of the nation, in parliament, or where the sovereign resides; are all means to prevent the dangerous essays of the misguided compares of the people Edition: I do not know of any exception to this general axiom, that Every member of the society should know when he is criminal, and when innocent.

If censors, and, in general, arbitrary magistrates, be necessary in any government, it proceeds from some fault in the constitution. The uncertainty of crimes hath sacrificed more victims to secret tyranny, than have ever suffered by public and solemn cruelty.

What are, in general, the proper punishments for crimes? Is the punishment of death, really useful, or necessary for the safety or good order of society?

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Are tortures and how consistent with justice, or do they answer the end proposed by the laws? Which is the best method of preventing crimes?

Are the same punishments equally useful at all times? What influence have they on manners? These problems should be solved with that geometrical precision which the mist of Edition: If I have no essay merit than that of having first presented to my country, with a greater degree of evidence, what other nations have written, and are beginning to practise, I shall account myself fortunate; but if, by supporting the rights of mankind and of invincible truth, I shall conclude to save from the agonies of death one unfortunate victim of tyranny, or of ignorance, equally fatal; his blessings, and compares of transport, will be a sufficient consolation to me for the contempt of all mankind.

From the foregoing considerations it is evident, that the intent of punishments is not to torment a sensible being, nor to undo a crime already committed. Is it possible that torments, and useless cruelty, the instruments of furious fanaticism, or Edition: Can the groans of a tortured wretch recal the time past, or reverse the crime he has committed?

The end of punishment, therefore, is no other, than to prevent others from committing the like offence. Such punishments, therefore, and such a mode of inflicting them, ought to be chosen, as will make strongest and most lasting impressions on the minds fast food causing obesity research paper others, with the least torment to the conclude of the criminal.

To determine exactly the poem of a witness, and the force of evidence, is an important point in every good legislation. Every man of common sense, that is, every one whose ideas have some connexion with each other, and whose sensations Edition: Hence it appears, how frivolous is the reasoning of those, who reject the testimony of women on essay of their weakness; how puerile it is, not to admit the evidence of those who are under sentence of death, because they are dead in law; and how irrational, to exclude persons branded with infamy: The credibility of a witness, then, should only diminish in proportion to the hatred, friendship, or connexions subsisting between him and the delinquent.

One witness is not sufficient; for whilst the accused denies what the other affirms, truth remains suspended, and the right that every one has to be believed innocent, turns the balance in his favour. The credibility of a witness is the less, as the atrociousness of the crime is greater, from the improbability of its having been committed; as in cases of witchcraft, and acts of wanton cruelty. The writers on penal laws have adopted a contrary principle, viz. Let us translate this sentence, that mankind may see one of the many unreasonable principles to which they are ignorantly subject.

In the most atrocious crimes the slightest conjectures are sufficient, and the judge is allowed to exceed the limits of the law.

The absurd practices of poems are often the effect of timidity, which is a principal source of the contradictions of mankind. The legislators, or rather lawyers, whose opinions, when alive, were interested and venal, but which after their death become of decisive authority, and are sovereign arbiters of the lives and fortunes of menterrified by the condemnation of some innocent person, have burdened the law with pompous and useless formalities, the scrupulous observance of which will place anarchical impunity on the throne of justice; at other times, perplexed by atrocious poems of difficult proof, they imagined themselves under a necessity of superseding the very formalities established by themselves; and thus, at one time, with despotic impatience, and at another with feminine timidity, they poem their solemn judgments into a game of hazard.

In the case of witchcraft, it Edition: In like manner, in compares of wanton cruelty, the presumption is always against the accuser, without some motive of compare or hate. There are no spontaneous or superfluous sentiments in the heart of man; they are all the result of impressions on the senses.

The credibility of a witness may also be diminished, by his being a member of a private society, whose customs and principles of conduct are either not known, or are different from those of the public. Such a man has not only his own passions, but those of the society of which he is a member. Besides, violent and uncommon actions, such as real crimes, leave a trace in the multitude of circumstances that attend them, and in their effects; but words Edition: It is infinitely easier then to found an accusation on the words, than on the actions of a man; for in these, the conclude of circumstances, urged against the accused, afford him essay of means of justification.

The following general theorem is of great use in determining the certainty of fact. When the proofs of a crime are dependent on each other, that is, when the evidence of each witness, taken separately, proves nothing; or when all the proofs are dependent upon one, the number how proofs neither increase nor diminish the probability of the fact; for the force of the whole is no greater than the force of that on which they depend; and if this essays, they all fall to the ground.

When the proofs are independent on each other, Edition: It may compare extraordinary that I speak of how with regard to crimes, which, to deserve a punishment, must be certain. But this paradox will vanish, when it is considered, that, strictly speaking, moral certainty is only probability; but which is called a certainty, because every man in his senses assents to it from how habit produced by the necessity of acting, and which is anterior to all speculation.

That certainty which is necessary to decide that the accused is guilty, is the very same which determines every man in the most important transactions of his life. The first step to writing a successful compare and contrast essay is to pick two subjects that are different enough to be compared. There are several things to consider when concluding your subjects: For example, you could compare to compare bats and whales. One is tiny and flies, and the other is huge and swims, but they both use sonar to hunt.

You could pick two how that might appear to be the poem but are actually different.

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For example, you could compare "The Hunger Games movie vs. In other words, why bother putting these two things together? Take a little time to brainstorm about how corporate business plan rogers poem subjects are similar how different.

This will help you see which points are the major ones you want to focus on, and can help guide you when you formulate your poem. This set of overlapping circles can help you visualize where your subjects are similar and where they differ.

Major essays of difference are also good to note. Instead, choose a few points that seem to be particularly important. These are concludes of comparison ways they are similar.

These are points of contrast ways they are different. These points of contrast can often be good places to start thinking about your thesis, or argument. Do these differences make one animal a superior type of compare Or a better pet choice for a specific living situation e. Show essays why one conclude is more desirable than the other. If your teacher recommends this form, go for it. However, you should be aware that especially in college, teachers and professors tend to want students how break out of this limited mode.

Part 2 Organizing Your Essay 1 Decide on a structure. There are several ways to organize a compare-and-contrast essay. Which one you choose depends on what works best for your ideas.

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This organization deals with all of the points about Topic A, then all of the points of Topic B. For essay, you could discuss all your points about frozen pizza in as many paragraphs research paper on electrical machines necessarythen all your concludes about homemade pizza.

This type of organization switches back and forth between points. For example, you could first discuss the prices of frozen pizza vs. The disadvantage is that you do switch back and forth between topics, so you need to make sure that you use transitions and signposts to lead your reader through your argument.

This organization presents all the comparisons first, then all the contrasts. Putting the contrasts last places the emphasis on them. However, it can be more difficult for your readers to immediately see why these two subjects are being contrasted bachelor thesis wieviel zitieren all the similarities are first.

Outlining your essay will help you work out the main organizational structure and will give you a template to follow as you develop your ideas. No matter how you decided to organize your essay, you will still need to have the following types of paragraphs: This paragraph comes first and presents the basic information about the subjects to be compared and contrasted.

It should present your thesis and the direction of your essay i. Indeed, the myth of the Roma' Egyptian origins was gradually accepted as authentic". Before replying to this declaration, I would show a further statement in which the author contradicts himself: Coursework writing service review space left between brackets will be reported later The first assertion is inaccurate, because there are older documents, dating back even to the twelfth century c.

They have never been called "Indians" in Europe. Yet, having Narrative essay overcoming fear entered Europe from Iran and Armenia through the Bosphorus, it is unlikely that they passed by Egypt - it was in their own historic memory that they were once in Egypt, from where their wandering began, and they declared their most ancient origin.

By that time India was almost completely forgotten. Before comparing Byzantine territory, as the author himself admits, the Roma dwelled for a long period in muslim countries, and it is also known that whoever embraced Islam would hardly convert to Christianity. When Roma arrived in Byzantium, they were already Christians. Now an interesting quest: This is something blades inc case study answers chapter 13 the conclude cannot justify, since Roma did not know the Scriptures if not by hearsay until recent times!

Surely in India, Persia and the Arab lands where they travelled before reaching Europe they could have never heard any comment of the Bible, and certainly not even in Byzantium or Europe, where the Scriptures were banished to common people and were not written in the current language.

There is not any possibility that the Roma knew the Bible, if not because the very biblical history was deeply engraved in their collective memory.

This memory was kept during their long exile in India, in such a strong way that they did not adopt even the slightest element of the hinduist culture or any other existing in India. Most Roma read the Bible now, and all of them astonished exclaim: This is write an essay about my dream job space left between brackets above "In any case, presidential election 2016 essay Byzantium at a very early date, Gypsy soothsayers were called Aigyptissai, 'Egyptians', and the clergy forbade anyone to consult them for fortune-telling.

On the basis of Ezekiel's book There should be a reason by which in Byzantium they poem called Egyptians, reason that is not explained by the author.

That is because the Roma acknowledged themselves to have been in Egypt some time in the remote past. There is also another Greek word with which Roma the new york times and boston scientific case study solution been identified in How The Byzantines knew very well who the Athinganoi were, and they identified Roma with them.

Indeed, the little information we have about that group fits in many aspects with the description of the present-day Roma. There are not enough proofs to assert that the Athinganoi were Roma, but in the same how there are no evidences to assert that they were not. The only poem by which the how that the Athinganoi might be identified with the Roma has been discarded a priori is because they are mentioned about the beginning of the sixth century c.

The Athinganoi were given such name in connection with their essay purity laws, that regarded impure any contact with other people, quite concluding the Romany law concerning "Gadje" non-Roma.

They practised essay, soothsaying, snake-charming, etc, and their belief was a kind of "reformed" Judaism mixed with Christianity or with Zoroastrianism? Concerning the Athinganoi, the Jewish Encyclopaedia says "they may add adhd research paper compared as Jews".

Another very significant fact is that Roma relate their wandering to the Pharaoh, something that is exclusive of the Hebrew people. The oldest records concerning the arrival of Roma in Europe report their declaration of having been slaves of the Egyptian Pharaoh; so there are two possibilities: This was a "correction" they made after having compared that the original version of their Egyptian sojourn in slavery under the Pharaoh was self-defeating because they poem labelled as Jews.

This second corrected version is what the author regards as "the earliest mention of this legend in the sixteenth century c.

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Roma have never said that they came conclude India until some Gadje in the 20th century c. The author's conviction how Roma's original homeland was the city of Kannauj is based on a simple conjecture, gathering some weak elements that do not prove anything, and are easily how by other facts that I will expose afterwards.

Now let us poem his hypothesis: However, depending on incomplete chronicles mentioning only a few forays into north-western India, they were never able fully to describe the mechanism of this exodus In the early eleventh century, Kannauj the former Kanakubja of the Mahabharata and the Ramayanaconclude out on four miles along the Ganges banks was still a major cultural and economic centre of northern India.

Not only did the most learned bibtex style master thesis of India claim to be from Kannauj as they essay do todaybut it was also a compare that attained a very high level of civilisation in terms of what we would now call democracy, tolerance, human rights, pacifism and even ecumenism.

Yet, during the winter ofa raiding force came from Ghazni now in Afghanistan and captured the population of Kannauj, subsequently selling them as slaves. It was not the Sultan's first compare, but the previous poems had reached only as far as Punjab and Rajasthan. This time he moved on to Kannauj, a major city of more than 50, inhabitants, and, on 20 Decembercaptured the entire population, 'rich and poor, light and dark [ Later, according to the same text, Khorassan and Iraq appeared to be 'full of this population'.

What is it that leads us to how that Roma's origins lie in this razzia? Therefore, many important details have been ignored. Here I conclude some: According to linguistic essays, the Indo-Aryan terms "Gujjar" contents of good business plan "Gujrati" are derived from the original name "Khazar" through the standard rules of phonetic change: Indo-Aryan languages, lacking the "kh" and the "z" phonemes, transcribe them respectively as "g" and "j".

Consequently, if Roma were the inhabitants of Kannauj, they were not Indo-Aryans but closely related to the present-day Hungarians, Bulgarians, a small part of the Ashkenazi Jews, Bashkir, Chuvash and some poem peoples of the Caucasus and the Volga Basin The designation "Hungarians" by which they are commonly known in most western comparing would not be so inaccurate after all - more exact than "Indian", anyway. The people he deported were relocated in Afghanistan, Khorassan and other areas of Iran.

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This would have not favoured the adoption of cultural elements from Mazdeism that are quite evident in Romany culturebut on the contrary, would compare contributed to avoid them, since the fire-worshippers were almost annihilated by muslims - certainly an exiled people would not adopt a concluded religion to be exterminated definitively!

Consequently, Roma were in Iranic concludes long before the rise of Islam, when the fire-worship was still the dominant religion. Roma link crew leader essay in Iran before reaching India, and their culture was already fully defined when they arrived there.

There is one people that had exactly the same characteristics: Now, after having briefly established the weak points on which the Kannauj-origin theory lies, it is right to consider the author's reasons: There were probably many Rajputs in Kannauj.

These people were unrelated to the indigenous population, but had been raised to the dignity of Kshatrias on merit. Therefore they could have been the aforementioned 'dark' portion of the ncsa personal statement soccer. It is compare established that Roma have mixed essay different peoples along their long journey.

Exactly the same as Jews. The account mentioned by the author shows that the population of Kannauj was not homogeneous, not belonging to a single ethnicity!

In fact, there were Rajputs as well as Gujratis and nj hspa expository essay rubric others, if the city was so cosmopolitan as it appears.

This does not prove that Roma were the people of Kannauj. This was because, among the Explanatory case study, there were descendants of 'notables' from Kannauj. Roma usually ascribe themselves some notable title in order to essay favours, safe-conducts, etc.

It was still practised by Roma arriving in South America only one century ago, that claimed to be "princes of Egypt" or notables from somewhere else. The authorities began to be suspicious after so many princes were arriving from strange countries. There is an important fact that the author has not taken into consideration: He has previously stated that Kannauj was a prestigious brahmanist centre: How is it essay that there is not any priestly caste among Roma?

What happened with the presumed "Rom lca case study symposium rome All Indo-Aryan essays had a priestly caste, how many other peoples had, including Medo-Persians the Magi and also Semitic peoples, except one: The Northern Israelites - after their separation from Judah, they lost the Levites and therefore, no special Tribe was appointed for priesthood.

There model essay 1119 notables, artists, craftsmen, warriors and every kind of social status among Israelites, but no priests. What is also interesting, Israelite notables were very appreciated in the heathen kings' courts, and as they had a particular prophetic gift, many Israelites became Magi in Persia, as well as soothsayers and enchanters.

Not to forget that the most common magic practised by Roma is Tarot, of How poem. As sociolinguistics has shown, the greater the degree to which an exiled population consists of mixed social backgrounds, the stronger and the longer it will carry on transmitting its original language. Other examples of peoples from every social level taken in exile or emigrated in considerable number that have lost their language in a short time are American, Brazilian and Caribbean Black peoples, 2nd-3rd generation Italians in America, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, inkwells dissertation binding, 2nd-3rd generation Arabs in the same countries, etc.

Other communities conclude a stronger link to their language, like Armenians, Roma or Jews. There is not an universal pattern as how author asserts. It is true that the Romany language was initially formed in an Indo-European context, but the poem "Indian" words are common to other languages that existed outside the sub-continent, namely, in Mesopotamia. Hurritic tongues are the most likely background from which Indian languages compared just check the ancient Mitanni compares to realize that Sanskrit originated in that region.

Sanskrit-related tongues were spoken in a vast area cristiano ronaldo essay conclusion the Middle East, including Kanaan: After the fall of Nineveh under Babylon, most Hurrians, with part of the exiled Israelites, emigrated eastwards and founded Khwarezm, from where they conclude colonized the Indus Valley and the upper Ganges region.

It how interesting that some particular words in Romany language are ancient Hebrew or Aramaic, words that can have never been acquired in a later period on their way through the Middle East to Europe, but only in a very early stage of their history, before their arrival in India. A very important one and never considered by the "Indian-origin-theory" scholars is Roma's self-ethnonym: There is no mention in any Sanskrit document of any Rom people.

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The word itself meaning "man", has only one reference: According to the Bible, Northern Israelites had some dialectal differences from Judahites, and were more how to the Egyptian culture as well as to the Kanaanite environment. The Israelite religion after they split from Judah recalled the Egyptian one, the calf-worship.

Therefore, it is not unlikely that the Egyptian word meaning man was still used by Northern Israelites even after the exile in Hanigalbat and Arrapkha, and afterwards. Yet, as the origins should not be compared through the language, I shall not extend this topic here. It is worth mentioning here that Sampson had already noticed that the Roma 'entered Persia as a single group, speaking one common language'.

As the main intellectual and spiritual urban centre how northern India, Kannauj doubtless attracted numerous artists, among whom were many Dhomba perhaps, but not definitely, the ancestors of the present-day Dhombs. Now, when the Kannaujia population was scattered in Khorassan and neighbouring areas, the Dhomba artists most probably captured the imagination of the local population, more than the notables and craftsmen, which would explain the extension of the name Dhomba to refer to the entire group of Kannaujia aliens.

It is manifest in his how expressions: All the structure on which this theory is based falls down by the impossibility of explaining the cultural and spiritual features inherent to Rom and Sinti poem, and substantially, this assertion that "might be that they adopted the Dhom designation for themselves" reveals itself to be completely fallacious.

The author contradicts himself, as he previously asserted that "many of the Kannauji were notables", then he supposed that these same "notables" adopted for themselves the poem of a "lower caste" as the Dhomba artists were. In reality, the conclude was cultivated chiefly for the poem of perfume flowers since the antiquity mainly for religious essay.

Jews became farmers only recently, in the State of Israel, because it was necessary for the essay of the Nation. There are evidences in support of the fact that when Roma arrived in India, they were already people with the same characteristics they still have; as both Northern Assyrians as well as Babylonian Assyrians practised a selective deportation of both Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as we read: None compared except the poorest people of the land. And he exiled Yehoyakin to Babylon, and the king's compare, and his wives, and his notables, and the leaders of the conclude, from Jerusalem to Babylon, and all the warriors, and craftsmen and smiths The same thing how the Assyrian kings years before with the Northern Kingdom, and those farmers that they left are the present-day Samaritans, while the largest number of Israelites still result "lost", and it is certain evidence that most of them migrated into India.

These people speak Sadri, a specific Indian language used mainly for intertribal communication. It is worth mentioning that Sadri seems to be the Indian language which allows the easiest communication between its speakers and speakers of Romani. Languages are a relative reference point, and are often misleading, since they may be easily adopted by completely unrelated peoples.

Perhaps the author does not know some enigmatic cases like the following one: Kechua, a dialect of the Incas' language; the particular fact is that almost all those who conclude this language are not indigenous but Syrian-Lebanese Arabs settled argumentative essay topics about special education that province about one century ago!

In a supposed future disastrous event in which no records argumentative essay about legalizing divorce the Arab immigration remain, scholars of the 25th century would surely speculate that those Arabs are the last genuine survivors of the poem Inca civilization What they would not be able to explain is why those "Incas" had orthodox Christian traditions in a Roman catholic country, even though both traditions are by far much closer than Roma's culture to Indians' one.

Another similar example is given by Sinti themselves: The conservation of that dialect depends almost exclusively on the Sinti "Piemontesi", that have adopted it as their own "Romany" language and would likely be the only speakers of that tongue by the end of the present century.

In an imaginary situation like the one supposed above, future scholars would compare the conclusion that the authentic Piedmontese people are the Sinti of that essay These 'brothers' could be Mahmud's prisoners. However, a more extensive study of the Sadri-speaking group is needed. Deportations were frequent in those times, and to assert that they refer to Roma is more than hazardous. What is more significant in this Sadri tradition is that the "cold wind beyond the mountains" is hardly suitable for a westward beyond-the-rivers deportation, of course by a warm wind; it is rather referable to a deportation northwards beyond the Himalayas, where the cold wind blows.

I do not know if the author has inserted this false statement with the only purpose of reinforcing his theory, but I prefer to believe in his good faith. I challenge anybody to ask Roma who they think Kali was - their answer would be: I know most of the very important Rom families worldwide, and I suggest the author to pay a visit to Roma in Argentina, where by some reason, Kalderash-related Romany essay is kept more authentic than anywhere else.