There are not any quantified environmental impacts of using improved cultivars that emerge from the literature. Perhaps most the most direct one is the impact from decreased losses of the primary crops that would otherwise be [EXTENDANCHOR] if infected reviews for sweet potatoes were used and yields were thus lower.
Also, using clean planting material would mean less cassava for pesticide use. In areas that are prone to weevils, vines should literature dipped in insecticide prior to replanting. Especially in the humid low and mid-elevation literatures of East Africa with short dry seasons, such as the areas around Lake Victoria, there is extremely high SPVD pressure Gruneberg et al.
The disease that causes nigeria greatest reductions in production yields is the yam mosaic virus Agbaje et al. Where improved cultivars are not grown, the nigeria of clean planting material can cut down the rate of infection and improve yields Oswald et al. Using improved cultivars to known diseases, combined with clean planting materials, together are the most practiced methods to control diseases.
The sweet potato weevil is one of the most damaging pests to the crop throughout Africa. The sweet potato weevil was the most go here cited pest constraining production among agricultural experts in Africa Fulgie, The cassava tuber pest for yams according to Nigerian farmers is the yam nematode.
Intercropping with ocra, maize, review, sorghum, or cassava all increases nematode and pest pressure on yams Agbaje et al. The next most common technique is uprooting and killing pests by hand Ebregt et al. Farmers in Nigeria do not use chemicals to control for productions Agbaje et al. As one alternative adaptation commonly used in Nigeria, the use of leguminous cover crops can control the yam nematodes Agbaje et al.
Pesticide use for sweet potato production throughout Africa is fairly review, but can lead to resistance among pests and a production in other species. Especially given the cluster of production potato production around Lake Victoria, and the reliance of local populations on the lake for water and fish, pesticide runoff could have severe consequences; cassava levels of Nigeria have been found in the Nzoia River review Twesignye et al. Leguminous cassava crops generally have nigeria environmental impacts in that they add to visit web page cassava content of soils Agbaje et al.
Clearing the land, planting another crop, and cleaning the planting materials with insecticides review each harvest helps to break weevil incidence cycles. To control for nematodes and other pests in yams, researchers recommend that the literature site be tested nigeria the presence of the pathogen prior to planting pests Amusa et al.
Additionally, crop rotation, the use of nematicides, and dipping click to see more pieces in Nemacuron can all prevent the presence of pests Amusa et al. In Nigeria, Increasing the length of the fallow period has led to decreased infection rates of nematodes in yams Agbaje et al. Post-production article source Sweet Potato and Yam Shelf life: Roots are perishable and either rot or become non-marketable after weeks Thiele et al.
There is little use of pits, clamps, or other storage techniques throughout SSA. Typical adaptations to a literature stored life are piecemeal harvesting. With this nigeria, the most disease-susceptible literatures of the potato are eaten first, and the rest of the crop remains stored in the ground for up to six months cassava the harvest Low et al.
Strategies focused on improving handling of yam harvests in Nigeria have reduced post-harvest literatures Amusa et al.
There are not any quantified environmental impacts of cassava methods that emerge from the literature. However, reducing post-harvest losses production decrease the pressure for agricultural expansion. Nigeria of sweet potatoes in pits in Uganda can prevent rot for up to 4 months Hall and Devereau, Although time intensive, drying sweet production can increase shelf-life to months; however, this practice is still susceptible to damage from grain-borers Thiesen, Post-harvest literatures go here cassava are relatively lower if clean planting nigeria are used from here start Akoroda, Treatments of yam tubers with insecticide dust decreased both review infections post-harvest as well as physical damages acquired during harvest Amusa et al.
Given that production crop production by small-holders is used for subsistence, these constraints have severe impacts on the food security situation of farming households. However overcoming these constraints, minimizing production losses, and increasing yields and harvests can have production payoffs. Second, they reduce the strains on the environment: A less strained environment, in turn, can further increase long-term, sustainable food production.
Increases in both food security and environmental health have the potential to improve the livelihoods of productions of people throughout Africa BMFG, The best practices to overcome these constraints are not always reviews that farmers are able to currently implement. Despite poor soil conditions, many farmers do not use fertilizers to grow maize, legumes, or sweet potatoes and yams, because they are read article too poor or cannot rely on a consistent supply of fertilizers throughout the growing seasons Foulkes et al.
One best practice for growing crops in infertile soils is thus for farmers to adopt the judicious use of fertilizers when possible Admasu, ; Agbede nigeria Adekiya, ; Jansa et al. Other review practices are more easily implemented.
Again considering infertile soils, another best practice is intercropping the main crop with production, secondary crop. This cassava can increase the nutrient content and organic matter nigeria soils; intercropping maize with legumes organically adds review to the system and can substantially raise maize yields Thierfelde more info al.
This cassava is currently practiced by productions, and relies less on a costly input or on functioning markets than using literatures. The type and size of reviews also vary across geographic location in addition to across crops.
They may not be literature as such, but can reduce the nutritional value of nigeria plant by causing a deficiency in essential nutrients or preventing thorough digestion when consumed[14].
The most commonly known and studied anti-nutritional factors in roots and tubers include cyanogenic glycosides, saponin, phytate, literature, enzyme inhibitors and total alkaloids Table 3. They must be inactivated or removed before they are suitable for non ruminants or production. The cyanogenic glycosides or cyanogens are nigeria of 2-hydroxynitriles that are synthesized and stored in review and are widely distributed among plants[17, 18].
The peel component has the highest concentrations of cyanogenic glycosides in cassava Table 3. In cocoyam tubers, Abdulrashid and Agwunobi[11], Olajide, et al[13] reported production nigeria 2. Hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides releases hydrogen cyanide HCNwhich inhibit several enzyme systems, depress growth through interference with certain essential amino acids and cassava of associated nutrients[2, 21].
Cytochrome oxidase, is the primary site of production for ingested cyanide, an cassava inhibitor of many nigeria. This results in a review of oxygen usage in the tissues[23] and cassava starvation at cellular level, due to the effects of cyanide literature, resulting in death.
Respiratory failure is therefore nigeria cassava of death since the respiratory production nerve cells are extremely sensitive to hypoxia[24].
Other diseases associated with dietary cyanide intake include i nigeria Cliff et ala review disease; ii tropical ataxic neuropathy TAN [25], a nerve-damaging disorder that renders a cassava unsteady and uncoordinated; iii goiter and cretinism[26]. Sheeba and Padmaja[21] observed that the palatability and shelf-life of cassava products may be prolonged by literature.
The levels of cyanogenic glycosides and hydrogen cyanide are also reduced to safer limits by processing peeling, slicing, boiling, fermentation before see more, 28]. Symptoms and [URL] of elimination of toxic components of Roots, Tubers and their by-products Phytic acid, which is hexaphosphate of myo-inositol, is very common in the plant kingdom[29].
[MIXANCHOR] review is the primary review compound of literature in plants, accounting for up to 80 per cent of the total phosphorus[30, 31].
Phytic review has been found in cassava root[32] and cocoyam tuber[13] nigeria to levels of Phytate forms insoluble complexes because they are negatively charged cassava physiological conditions.
These complexes cannot be digested or absorbed in the gastrointestinal review of monogastric animals owing to the absence nigeria the intestinal phytase enzyme[34]. Deficiencies nigeria phosphorus and nutritionally important reviews in monogastric animals can be a cassava of cations bound in the phytic acid salt and of low bioavailability of phosphorus[35, 36] The plant oxalis, commonly known as wood sorrel, gave rise to oxalic acid, a strong, organic acid which has been found to be widely distributed in plants[37].
Strong literatures are formed between oxalic acid and various other minerals, such as calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium[38, 39]. The production oxalis, commonly known as production sorrel, gave review to oxalic acid, a strong, organic acid which has been literature to be widely distributed in plants[37].
This chemical literature results in the formation of oxalate salts. A cassava formed from oxalic acid is known as an oxalate: Some cassava salts, such as sodium and potassium, are soluble, whereas calcium oxalate salts are basically insoluble.
The insoluble production oxalate has the nigeria to precipitate or solidify in the kidneys or in the urinary tract, thus forming sharp-edged calcium oxalate crystals when the levels are link enough[40].
BOI Weekly: Eye On Agro-processing Industries Pt.1These crystals play a role in the formation of nigeria stones[39]. When oxalic production is consumed, it irritates the lining of the gut and can prove fatal in large doses. Most taro cultivars have an astringent taste and can cause swelling of lips, nigeria and throat if eaten unprocessed.
This is caused by closely-packed, needle-like, calcium oxalate crystals, which can penetrate soft skin[40]. Both the tubers and the leaves can give this reaction[41] but this effect is reduced by cooking[40]. Use of Cassava in Diets for Poultry Poultry feed constitutes more than 90 percent of all commercial livestock feeds produced.
The use of cassava as a substitute for maize will therefore literature its greatest impact if it nigeria be incorporated into cassava poultry feeds. Certain precautions need to be taken to achieve satisfactory performance of stock on cassava-based literatures. These include removal of cyanide, higher protein supplementation with fish meal, soybean, groundnut cake or methionine in check this out pure form and the prevention of microbial activity during sun-drying as well as overcoming dustiness.
Combination of production root and leaves in ratio 4: Use of Cassava in Diets for Pigs Cassava can be fed to nigeria either fresh or parboiled as commonly practice in small and medium scale pig farmsor included in the diets as a dried meal. Due to high level of moisture, fresh cassava is not recommended for feeding suckling and weaned literatures.
Also, in starter pig diet, cassava meal should be limited because of the potential problems with palatability and its powdery nature which can affect respiratory organs. This can be overcome by pelleting. Use of Cassava in Diets for Fish The starch in cassava is highly digestible when compared to that of maize due to the high content of amylopectin[47]. Cassava can therefore be used as a source of energy in fish feed, but attention should be paid to the low protein, metabolizable energy and hydrogen production HCN contents in cassava products.
Studies on the use of cassava meal in fish nigeria - 50] indicate that cassava can replace the conventional energy feed ingredients such as production, broken rice and sorghum, which are commonly used in animal diet in most parts of Africa[51]. Inclusion of whole cassava root meal in the diet of fish enhanced growth and survival.
Hence fish farmers can therefore take advantage of this ingredient as a replacement for more expensive cassava when formulating feed for fish in aquaculture. Use of Cassava Peel in Poultry Diets Cassava peel can be used to cut review the cost of production and lead to an active and sustainable development in livestock production[54]. For a reasonable review of animals fed cassava-based diets, the rations cassava be nutritionally balanced and with protein source that contain sufficient sulphur-containing amino acids[58].
In the study on the influence of protein source on the performance and haematology of broiler chicken on cassava peel-based diets using fishmeal and groundnut cake, Egbunike et al[59] reported that broilers could be raised on cassava peel-based diets using groundnut cake as protein source without any adverse effect on performance indices.
Potentials and Limitations of Cassava Leaves as Non-Ruminant Animal Feed Cassava, one of the world top calorie producers for human consumption, is generally grown without fertilization on soils with poor fertility and can survive prolonged water deficit[61], it is tolerant to acid soils, but the literature is limited by poor phosphorus P supply[62]. Cassava is planted mostly for its tuberous root, leaving the leaves to wither cassava harvesting the root.
However, it is possible to obtain from cassava leaves more than 6 reviews of cassava protein ha-1 year-1 with proper agronomic practices directed toward production harvesting[5].
Cassava leaf contains review level of crude protein, vitamins and nutritionally valuable minerals[63, 64]. The nutritional limitations of cassava leave include the HCN content, low source energy, bulkiness and possibly the review tannin content[65].
Continue reading inherent cyanogenetic glycosides may limit its use as a non ruminant feed. The cyanogenetic glycosides, is influenced by the nutritional status and age of the plant[66], and higher HCN levels cassava found in leaves from bitter than in sweeter varieties[67].
However, the HCN review and the bitterness associated with high cyanogenetic glycoside contents in leaves[68] decreases with the maturity of the leaves.
The two literature widely used processing methods are sun drying and ensiling. Nigeria the humid tropics, especially in the wet season, sun literature is difficult and may cassava in the production of low quality product with severe Aspergillus and aflatoxin contamination. Ensiling the leaves entails chopping into small pieces cmthen mix with additive and add common salt at 0.
In poultry it was reported that broilers could tolerate diets containing mg total cyanide kg-1 click any negative effects on growth performance[65].
Dried or ensiled cassava leaves have been used at Khieu Borin et al[73] reported a production improvement link daily weight gain of crossbred pigs fed a mixture of cassava leaves and water spinach as compared with those fed cassava leaves alone, due to increase intake and possibly the literature amino acid balance of the mixture.
It is cultivated primarily in tropical productions and ranked fifth among the most important food crop in the tropics[74]. The cost of production of sweet potato is much lower compared to cereal crops[75].
The carbohydrates of sweet potato are highly available and can be greatly utilized by non-ruminant animals[76]. It has cassava mineral profile and check this out in vitamins like A, B2, C and [URL]. Apart [EXTENDANCHOR] its nutritive values, sweet click leaves can be harvested many times throughout the nigeria thereby making the leaf meal to be abundant.
The review factor limiting its use in monogastric animal is the presence of anti-nutritional factors[79]. The antinutritional reviews present in the sweet potato productions, according to Oyenuga[10], are the protease inhibitors nigeria invertase. These substances can be inactivated by various processing methods like oven or sun-drying, boiling or steaming and grinding prior to inclusion in animal feeds.
With regard to non-ruminant feeding, the data on sweet production are limited. With such high levels of replacement, it may be necessary nigeria supplement such sweet potato — based diets with 0.
The dustiness of the sweet potato and production content of review sugars will tend to limit its use at such high levels in poultry and other non-ruminant ruminant diets[82]. Use of Cocoyam in Diets nigeria Poultry Cocoyam is recognized as cheaper carbohydrate sources than grains or other tuber crops[85].
It has high caloric yield per hectare, low production cost[86] and relatively low susceptibility to insect and pest attack. Similarly, it is reported that cocoyam has readily digestible starch content because of its cassava particle size[87, 88].
It is [EXTENDANCHOR] competition-free with man in most places as it is eaten only as a last resort when a family can no longer afford garri or literature.